The recovery began under Ashur-dan II (r.c.935-c.912 BC). He campaigned in the northern mountains to secure the trade routes into Anatolia. He defeated the king of the northern state of Kadmuhu and replaced him with someone loyal to Assyria. He re-established the borders of Assyria against the Aramaeans in the west and pacified the eastern region to secure trade with the Iranian Plateau and beyond. He resettled displaced populations, constructed new towns and ploughed large tracts of previously uncultivated land to ‘pile up more grain than ever before’.
Adad-nirari II (r.911-891 BC) extended and consolidated the territories in which his father had campaigned. He conducted eight campaigns against the Aramaeans and at least two campaigns against Babylon. Shamash-mudammiq (r.c.920-c.900 BC) had to surrender territory, but the campaign against Nabu-shuma-ukin-I (r.c.900-c.888 BC) ended with a peace agreement that was to last some eighty years. Tukulti-Ninurta II (r.891-884 BC) achieved an important victory over Bit Zamani in northwest Mesopotamia and is usually credited with rounding off this stage of the Assyrian recovery.
Ashurnasirpal II (r.884-859 BC), building on the work of his three predecessors, made Assyria one of the dominant powers in the Near East. He undertook at least fourteen campaigns. In the east he brought large sections of the land under Assyrian control. Several of his campaigns were directed northwards against previously vassal states. When Babylonia in the south and Bit Adini on the mid-Euphrates encouraged the states of Suhu and Laqe to rebel, Ashurnasirpal after dealing harshly with Suhu and Laqe made no move against Babylonia but instead concentrated his attacks on Bit Adini – a campaign against Kaprabu, a fortress of Bit Adini, led to Akhuni of Bit Adini paying tribute. Ashurnasirpal then crossed the Euphrates into Carchemish territory and received the submission of its king, Sangara. Passing through Bit Agusi he crossed north of its capital Arpad and came to the coastal state of Pattina. He then moved south along the Orontes to the Mediterranean where he ceremoniously washed his weapons in the Mediterranean and accepted gifts from the Phoenician cities.
Shalmaneser III (r.859-824 BC) began the difficult task of consolidating his father’s successes. Thirty-four known campaigns can be dated. In 858 BC he defeated a coalition of Bit Adini, Carchemish, Samal, Que and Hilakku (north Syria, Cilicia and Taurus). In 856 BC he defeated Bit Adini and turned it into an Assyrian province. In 855 BC fought the Urartian king Aramu (r.858-844 BC) and captured the royal city of Arzashkun. In 853 BC he was held at the Battle of Qarqar by a coalition of ‘twelve kings of the sea-coast’ assembled by Irhuleni of Hamath (fl.850s BC) and Adad-idri (=Ben-Hadad II) of Damascus (r.c.880-c.842 BC). In 851 BC he honoured his treaty with Babylonia by helping the rightful heir Marduk-zakir-shumi-I (r.c.855-c.819 BC) defeat his brother Marduk-bel-usate. By 841 BC the northwest coalition had disintegrated and Shalmaneser received tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Jehu of Israel (r.c.841-c.814 BC). In 830 BC the Assyrian army commanded by Shalmaneser’s general Dayyan-Ashur fought the Urartian king Sarduri-I (r.834-828 BC).
In the last years of Shalmaneser’s reign his son Shamshi-Adad V (r.824-811 BC) had to fight to put down a revolt by twenty-seven cities – including Assur and Nineveh – led by another of the king’s sons, Ashur-danin-apli. It took four years for Shamshi-Adad to establish himself on the throne and only with the help of Marduk-zakir-shumi. Although Shamshi-Adad led military campaigns to the north it is his expedition against Babylonia (814 BC?) for unexplained reasons that is seen as the most significant event of his reign. He ravaged the country and took the Babylonian king Marduk-balassu-iqbi (r.c.819-c.813 BC) prisoner.
The early campaigns of Adad-nirari III (r.811-783 BC) were conducted by his generals, especially Nergal-ilia. Adad-nirari campaigned in Syria/Palestine and levied tribute from Damascus, Israel, Edom and Philistia. He is described as having made an effort to restore peace and order to Babylonia by returning deportees and abducted statues of gods. He maintained the borders of the empire as they had been under Shalmaneser III but towards the end of his reign Assyria began a period of decline.
His eldest son Shalmaneser IV (r.783-773 BC) seems to have had limited authority: Shamshi-ilu, the Assyrian commander-in-chief (turtanu), recorded victories over Urartu in his own name. The reign of the second son Ashur-dan III (r.773-755 BC) was marked by unsuccessful campaigns in Syria and Babylonia, plagues, a revolt and an eclipse of the Sun dated 15 June 763 BC that serves as a reference for the chronology of the ancient Near East. Very few sources survive from the reign of the third son Ashur-nirari V (r.755-745 BC): there is a fragmentary copy of treaty with the king of Arpad and in an inscription the Urartian king Sarduri II (r.753-735 BC) claims to have defeated him.
A rebellion brought Tiglath-pileser III (r.745-727 BC) to power. In his first regnal year he claims to have annexed several Babylonian cities. During the years preceding his reign Urartu had expanded westwards into the Taurus range and southwards into the region of the upper Euphrates. In his first western campaign (743-738 BC) he defeated a coalition led by Urartian king Sarduri II and moved on to Arpad, the key to northern Syria. The fall of Arpad after a three-year siege led to the surrender of most of the other states in northern and central Syria, including Hamath. After a few years campaigning against the Urartians and the Medes he set out on his second western campaign (734-732 BC). He marched down the Phoenician coast capturing Byblos and other cities until he met Hiram II of Tyre (r.739-730 BC), who capitulated and paid tribute. At Ashkelon he accepted the surrender of Mitinti. When he reached Gaza, Hanno fled to Egypt. In 733 BC he put down an insurgency led by Rezin of Damascus (r.740-732 BC) and supported by Tyre, Samaria and some Arabs, all of these having paid tribute in 738 BC. Damascus fell in 732 BC. In 729 BC he captured Nabu-mukin-zeri (r.732-729 BC) and assumed total control of Babylon. Almost nothing is known of the reign of his son Shalmaneser V (r.727-722 BC) except that he probably began the siege of Samaria.
Sargon II (r.722-705 BC), who may have been a younger son of Tiglath-pileser III, probably seized the throne in a violent coup. The sudden death of Shalmaneser V triggered a number of rebellions within the empire. In the south, the Chaldaean Merodach-Baladan II (r.722-710, 703 BC) took control of Babylon. In 720 BC Sargon moved against him but was beaten near Der by an Elamite army supporting the Babylonians. At Qarqar later in the same year he defeated a coalition that included the cities of Damascus, Samaria and Arpad. He then marched down the coast and reconquered Gaza.
In Anatolia, Midas of Phrygia (r.c.738-c.695 BC) and Rusa-I of Urartu (r.735-714 BC) incited the smaller states between them and Assyria to rebel. Sargon reacted with a series of military campaigns. Carchemish was captured in 717 BC and Midas sued for peace in 709 BC. Sargon’s eighth campaign (716 BC) was probably motivated by the fact that the Urartians had been attacked by the Cimmerians. He defeated the Urartian camp in a surprise attack and stormed Musasir. The city was sacked and the temple looted. In 710 BC he marched to Babylon and forced Merodach-Baladan into exile. In 706 BC he moved from Calah to his new capital Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad). He died in unknown circumstances on the way to the north to do battle.
Sennacherib (r.705-681 BC) began a major restoration of Nineveh and it eventually became the Assyrian capital. In 703 Merodach-Baladan, obedient to Sargon II since 710 BC, made another bid for the kingship. Supported by the Aramaeans, Elamites and the Arabs, he seized the throne from Marduk-zakir-shumi II (r.703 BC). Sennacherib defeated the coalition near Kish and Merodach-Baladan fled to Bit Yakin. Sennacherib plundered Babylon and put Bel-ibni (r.703-700 BC) on the throne. Sennacherib’s second (702 BC) and fifth (699-697 BC) campaigns were against the tribes east of the Tigris. His third campaign (701 BC) was directed against the west. Sidon and Ashkelon were taken by force and other states submitted and paid tribute. Ekron called on Egypt for aid. The Assyrians met this allied force at Eltekeh and claimed a victory. Sennacherib now laid siege to Jerusalem. During the siege the surrounding towns were sacked. The siege ended with Hezekiah (r.c.729-c.687 BC) paying a huge bribe to Sennacherib.
In his fourth campaign Sennacherib returned to Babylonia to put down a rebellion by Merodach-Baladan and Bel-ibni. The former died soon afterwards, the latter was replaced by Sennacherib’s son Ashur-nadin-shumi (r.700-694 BC). In his sixth campaign Sennacherib used boats to transport troops across the Persian Gulf, but the Elamites invaded Babylonia in a surprise attack. Ashur-nadin-shumi was captured and replaced by Nergal-ushezib (r.694-693 BC). In 693 BC a large battle was fought against the Babylonian rebels at Nippur.
Nergal-ushezib was captured and taken to Assyria and another rebellion leader Mushezib-Marduk (r.693-689 BC) claimed the throne. Sennacherib’s seventh campaign (693 BC) was launched against Elam. He sacked and destroyed numerous cities and captured some border towns. During the course of his eighth campaign the last great battle between the Assyrians and Elamite-Babylonian coalition was fought at Halule, probably in 691 BC. The result is uncertain but shortly afterwards Babylon was besieged and sacked in 689 BC. Sennacherib was murdered by one or two of his sons.
Esarhaddon (r.681-669 BC) decided on a peaceful relationship with Babylonia and its immediate neighbours. He ordered the reconstruction of Babylon, a project that lasted the whole of his reign. An alliance was made with the Gambulu, an Aramaean tribe on Babylonia’s eastern frontier, to form a buffer state between Elam and Mesopotamia. Urtaku (=Urtak-inshushinak-I) of Elam (r.675-663 BC) sent messengers to conclude a peace agreement with Assyria and this freed Esarhaddon to campaign elsewhere. In 679 BC the Cimmerians reappeared in Cilicia and Tabal. Esarhaddon defeated them and they withdrew to the west. The Sidonian king Abdi-Milkuti (r.c.680-677 BC), who had risen against the Assyrian king, was defeated and beheaded. A daughter of Esarhaddon was married to the Scythian prince Partatua (r.c.673-c.653 BC) to improve relations with the nomads. In 676 BC Esarhaddon took several towns in the Zagros Mountains. The Manneans, former vassals of Assyria, once restricted to the area around Lake Urmia, had spread into Zamua where they interrupted the horse trade into Assyria and refused to pay further tribute. The Medes had been the target of a campaign as well.
In 673 BC Esarhaddon easily repelled an attack by Rusa II of Urartu (r.680-639 BC), but an attack on Taharqa of Egypt (r.690-664 BC) miscarried. In 671 BC he returned and captured Memphis. Taharqa fled south. After giving their support to Taharqa’s northern rivals the Assyrians departed. Almost immediately Egypt rebelled against Assyrian rule. Esarhaddon sent a general to restore order in Egypt. In 669 BC he decided to go there in person but died at Harran.
Esarhaddon was succeeded by his two sons: Ashurbanipal (c.58; r.669-631 BC; d.327 BC) became king of Assyria and Shamash-shum-ukin (r.668-648 BC) became king of Babylon, but it was understood that Shamash-shum-ukin was subservient to his brother. In 667 BC the Assyrians marched into Egypt and defeated Taharqa, who again withdrew to the south. Most of the leaders were taken to Nineveh, but Necho-I (r.672-644 BC) was spared and installed as king of Sais. In 664 BC Taharqa’s successor and nephew Tanutamani (r.c.664-c.656 BC) captured Aswan, Thebes and Memphis. In 663 BC the Assyrians retook Memphis and Thebes was sacked. Necho was succeeded by his son Psamtek-I (r.664-610 BC) who with the help of Greek mercenaries gained control of the Delta. These reversals encouraged Balu-I of Tyre (r.680-660 BC) and Yakinlu of Arwad (fl.664 BC) to make bids for independence that failed after sieges. A campaign against the Manneans and an alliance with the Scythians relieved Cimmerian pressure on the Assyrian border tribes. Gyges of Lydia (r.680-644 BC) asked for help against the Cimmerians but he was refused because he supported Egypt. In 664 BC Urtaku unexpectedly invaded Babylonia. Ashurbanipal dispatched an army and the Elamite forces retreated. In the same year Urtaku died and was succeeded by Teumman (=Temti-humban-inshushinak-I; r.663-653 BC). In 652 BC an Assyrian army defeated Elam at the Battle of the Ulaya River (=Karkheh or Karun River?).
Shamash-shum-ukin rebelled. He seems to have plotted with Elam, Egypt, Phoenicia, Judah and the local Chaldaean and Arab tribes. Elam, divided by internal politics, withdrew from the alliance. The Babylonian army was defeated and Shamash-shum-ukin retreated to Babylon. His allies failed against the Assyrians. Babylon was besieged and Shamash-shum-ukin died in his palace just before the city surrendered. Kandalanu (r.648-627 BC), whose origins are unknown, was made king of Babylon. Punitive attacks were made on the Arabs. In c.646 BC Susa was captured and Elam devastated.
Fall of Nineveh (612 BC)
Ashurbanipal abdicated and his son Ashur-etil-ilani (r.631-623 BC) succeeded him. When Kandalanu died, a usurper Sin-shumu-lishir (r.627 BC) was proclaimed king in Babylon. His forces were soon defeated, however, and Ashur-etil-ilani’s brother Sin-shar-ishkun (r.627 BC) was recognized as king of Babylon. In 626 BC the Chaldaean Nabopolassar (r.626-605 BC) declared himself king of Babylonia. The three rulers fought for control of the area. Apparently Nabopolassar and Sin-shar-ishkun became allies. Nabopolassar won control of Babylon and Sin-shar-ishkun became king of Assyria (r.623-612 BC), Ashur-etil-ilani apparently having fallen in battle.
Nabopolassar and Sin-shar-ishkun soon began to struggle with each other for dominance in Mesopotamia. Nabopolassar’s first move was against the provinces of Suhu and Hindanu. A few months later he had to fight a battle there against the Assyrians. When he moved further up the Euphrates a combined force of Egyptians and Assyrians attempted to push the Babylonians back but failed. Early in 615 BC Nabopolassar penetrated Assyrian territory east of the Tigris and drove the Assyrians back to the Zab. A few months later he attempted to fight the Assyrians at Assur itself but was defeated and briefly put under siege at Takrit.
At the end of 615 BC, the Medes, having got the better of the Scythians, invaded Assyria and took Arrapha. In 614 BC the Medes captured Assur. The Babylonian army arrived too late to participate but Nabopolassar and the Median king Cyaxares (r.625-585 BC) agreed to a treaty of mutual aid and support. In 613 BC Nabopolassar had to face a serious revolt by Suhu that involved the laying sieges and fighting off an Assyrian attack. In 612 BC Nineveh fell after a three-month siege. Sin-shar-ishkun is not heard off again. Another Assyrian, calling himself Ashur-uballit II (r.612-609 BC), set himself up as king at Harran. In 510 BC the city fell and the Egyptians retreated into northern Syria. From 608 BC onwards all traces of the Assyrians disappear from the record.
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