Gaius Marius (70; fl.133-86 BC)
In 137 BC the tribune 02Cassius Longinus Ravilla (cos.127 BC) passed the lex Cassia tabellaria, introducing secret ballots before the popular courts in all legal cases except those for treason. He was censor in 125 BC and extended the Tepula aqueduct to Rome. As inquisitor he formulated the famous maxim cui bono? (‘Good for whom?’, or ‘Who benefits?’). As prosecutor in 113 BC he condemned three Vestal Virgins accused of unchastity even though two of them as well as the men involved had been acquitted by the pontifex maximus, 05Caecilius Metellus (cos.119 BC).
Marius served with 29Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus at Numantia in 133 BC, was a quaestor in 123 BC and a tribune in 119 BC, in which position he passed a law (the lex Maria) to narrow the walkways that voters crossed to cast their votes, presumably to make it more difficult to intimidate them. The consuls made a show of opposing the law, but the other senators did not join in their objections.
• Jugurthine War (112-106 BC)
| Siege: Cirta | v. Jugurtha (s) | 112 |
| Battle: Suthul | Jugurtha/Postumius (10) | 110 |
| Battle: Muthul River | Caecilius (9)/Jugurtha | summer 109 |
| Battle: Zama | Caecilius (9)/Jugurtha | autumn 109 |
| Battle: Cirta | Marius/Jugurtha | 106 |
In 133 BC Aemilianus suggested to the Numidian king Micipsa though he had two sons of his own Hiempsal and Adherbal (3), that he adopt the Numidian leader Jugurtha (c.150-104 BC) who served under Aemilianus at Numantia. When the king died in 118 BC Jugurtha killed Hiempsal and defeated Adherbal who fled to Rome. The Senate sent a commission under Opimius (2) to adjudicate and he awarded the more fertile eastern half of the kingdom to Adherbal.
In 112 BC Jugurtha besieged Adherbal in Cirta. Despite two embassies from the Senate, one of which was led by the leader of the Senate, 13Aemilius Scaurus, Jugurtha continued the siege and on taking the town killed Adherbal and a number of Italians in the city. The Roman people, led by the tribune Gaius Memmius (1) (fl.111-100 BC), were outraged by this action and the Senate declared war on Jugurtha.
In 111 BC an army was sent under the consul 06Calpurnius Bestia who, after bribery and/or persuasion by Jugurtha’s Roman friends, concluded a peace with Jugurtha which however the Senate rejected. Memmius had Jugurtha summoned to Rome to reveal who his supporters were, but another tribune Gaius 04Baebius (bribed by Jugurtha) used his authority in the assembly to order Jugurtha not to respond to his accusers. After ordering his agent Bomilcar (4) to assassinate Massiva, a cousin and rival for the Numidian throne who was then a refugee in Rome, Jugurtha returned home.
In 110 BC the consul Spurius 10Postumius Albinus continued the war against Jugurtha, but returned to Rome to hold elections leaving his brother and legate Aulus 11Postumius Albinus to lead a winter campaign. Aulus set off to attack the town of Suthul, but was lured out into the desert and surprised by night attack. Next day to save himself and his men, he was forced to surrender and evacuate Numidia within ten days.
In 109 BC the tribune 03Mamilius Limetanus passed the lex Mamilia to prosecute those suspected of making accommodations with Jugurtha: Opimius, Bestia, Albinus and others were condemned and went into exile. Mamilius probably also passed the lex Mamilia de limitibus regulating the boundaries of public land, thus gaining his cognomen.
The war was entrusted to the consul 09Caecilius Metellus (c.69; fl.126-91 BC), who took 01Rutilius Rufus (fl.134-78 BC) and Marius (1) with him as his legates. Entering Numidia from the northeast, Metellus captured Vaga then proceeded southwestwards. Jugurtha was waiting near the Muthul on a ridge of hills overlooking the route that Metellus was taking. On his right and nearest the river Jugurtha positioned his elephants and part of his infantry under Bomilcar (4) while on the left together with the cavalry and picked infantry he took up a concealed position at the opposite end of the ridge near to the foot of slope where Metellus would enter the valley.
But cover was insufficient for effective concealment and after sending Rutilius ahead with a detachment of cavalry to pitch a camp on the bank of the river, Metellus formed his battle line to face Jugurtha but then immediately ordered the soldiers to face left and continue to move in column across the plain: Metellus with some cavalry in front, Marius to the rear with the remainder. Jugurtha waited until the rear of the Roman column had passed his extreme left then sent two thousand men to cut off the Romans retreat.
Jugurtha launched his attack but the Numidian light horse could not withstand the shock of the Roman cavalry and the African infantry were unable to match the endurance of the Roman legionaries. Towards evening Marius led a successful charge against some of the infantry that had pulled back to high ground and this ended the battle in this quarter.
Meanwhile, Rutilius had reached the river and started to mark out a camp. Bomilcar had allowed the legate to pass and was now moving down to cut him off from the main battlefield. Rutilius drew up his line and Bomilcar moved in to attack. But his elephants were impeded by the trees, separated from one another and surrounded by the Romans. Four elephants were taken and the remaining forty killed, and the Numidian infantry soon dispersed.
This defeat convinced Jugurtha that he stood little chance of success in the open field and thereafter he adopted a guerrilla strategy. With his infantry unable to draw Jugurtha’s cavalry to do battle, Metellus advanced into Numidia, ravaging the lands, capturing and burning many towns and places.
He divided his army into two divisions, one commanded by Marius, the other by himself, having separate camps not far from each other and with Jugurtha hanging on the Roman rear waiting for his opportunity. Marcellus laid siege to Zama and sent Marius to forage around Sicca. Jugurtha dogged Marius and attacked him outside Sicca, calling on the townspeople to fall on the enemy’s rear. Marius fought his way clear and both he and Jugurtha returned to Zama.
Jugurtha attacked the Roman camp and forced his way in by the gate. Metellus hearing shouts behind him sent his cavalry and Gaius Marius with the cohorts of the Italian allies to the camp. Jugurtha eventually withdrew, leaving many dead behind him. The next day the town was assaulted and defended with equal vigour. With the season over and unable to capture the town, Metellus took up winter quarters in the north.
During the winter, Vaga was lost and recaptured. Metellus took the field and defeated Jugurtha, who retreated and took refuge at Thala. Metellus followed and captured the town but Jugurtha slipped away and westwards fled to the Gaetulians.
The Gaetulians furnished Jugurtha with fresh forces, and he continued westwards to Mauretania where he persuaded its king Bocchus-I to intervene. The two kings hoping to seize booty appeared in force near Cirta, which had come into Roman possession, but Metellus was encamped nearby. Negotiations followed and warfare lapsed.
In 107 BC Marius was elected consul and appointed commander in Numidia by the assembly. Returning to Africa, he continued the war much the same as his predecessor had done previously by fortifying as many positions as he could; but he did win one set battle near Cirta. Towards the end of the year Marius endured an intense march across the desert and succeeded in capturing the heavily fortified town of Capsa. After this success he returned to his winter quarters near Cirta.
In spring 106 BC he continued to reduce strongholds including one near the Muluccha, some seven hundred miles (1100 km) to the west, bordering on Mauretania. It was during this campaign that the quaestor 32Cornelius Sulla (c.60; fl.106-78 BC) arrived with much needed reinforcements.
In the autumn Bocchus joined Jugurtha and pursued Marius as he withdrew to his winter quarters. But their surprise attack on the Roman camp was beaten off and a second defeat near Cirta destroyed most of their armies. Bocchus then sent an envoy to Marius to ask for negotiations to restore his status as friend and ally of Rome.
Marius sent two envoys, his legate Aulus 13Manlius and Sulla, to discuss terms. Bocchus agreed to betray Jugurtha, who was then lured to meet Sulla on the pretext of discussing a truce. He was seized and taken to Rome, displayed as a prisoner in Marius’ triumph, and executed about a week later.
Rome’s success in North Africa brought her no territorial advantage. The Roman province of Africa was not enlarged; eastern Numidia was given to a half-brother of Jugurtha, named Gauda (r.105-88 BC); and Bocchus was rewarded for his treachery by receiving western Numidia in addition to retaining the throne of Mauretania.
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